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BULLETIN 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  TEXAS 


FOUR  TIMES  A  MONTH 


NO.      188 


EXTENSION  SERIES,   NO     17 


|UNF  22,   1911 


NOTES  ON  SCHOOL  OBSERVATION 

THE  PHYSICAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD 

BY 

BIRD  T.  BALDWIN, 

Associate  Professor  of  Education,  the  University  of  Texas. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  TEXAS 

AUSTIN.  TEXAS 

Entered  as  second  class  mail  matter  at  the  postoffice  at  Austin,  Texas 


AUSTIN    PRINTING  COMPANY 

AUSTIN.  TEXAS 

1911 


EXCHANGE 

Cultivated  mind  is  the  guardian 
genius  of  democracy.  .  .  .  It  ifi 
the  only  dictator  that  freemen  ac- 
knowledge and  the  only  security  that 
freemen  desire. 

President  Mirabeau  B.  Lamar. 


NOTES  ON  SCHOOL  OBSERVATION 


This  Bulletin  forms  a  part  of  the  introduction  to  a  course  in 
School  Observation  which  the  author  is  giving  in  The  University 
of  Texas.  The  course  may  also  be  taken  through  the  Extension 
Department  of  the  University  by  principals,  supervisors,  and  teach- 
ers who  wish  to  carry  out  observations  in  connection  with  their 
school  work.  All  reports  and  answers  to  the  questions  will  be 
evaluated  and  checked  by  the  instructor.  Similar  bulletins  will  be 
issued  on  Instinct  and  Play,  Fatigue,  Individual  Differences,  Dis- 
cipline, and  the  Recitation.  A  series  of  bulletins  on  Practice  Teach- 
ing will  be  published  later.  All  of  these  bulletins  will  aim  to  deal 
with  fundamental  problems  in  an  elementary  manner.  Teachers 
who  wish  to  take  this  work  should  register  in  the  Department  of 
Extension. 

BIRD  T.  BALDWIN. 

Austin,  Texas,  1911. 


M523681 


THE   PHYSICAL  NATURE   OF   THE   CHILD  IN  HIS   SCHOOL 

ENVIRONMENT. 

It  is  now  conceded  by  all  educators  that  it  is  very  important  for 
teachers  to  have  a  rather  complete  knowledge  of  the  physical  growth 
of  school  children,  but  the  important  practical  problem  is,  "What 
shall  the  teacher  observe  and  how  shall  he  make  the  observations 
sufficiently  definite  and  accurate  to  be  of  help  to  both  teacher  and 
pupils?"  Let  us  first  select  the  phases  of  the  physical  nature  of 
the  child  which  may  be  observed  by  any  teacher  who  is  willing  to 
use  a  little  perseverance  and  time.  They  are>  growth  in  height  and 
weight;  chest  girth;  breathing  capacity;  head  girth;  cephalic  index; 
symmetry  of  body;  posture;  the  teeth;  enlarged  tonsils;  adenoids; 
nasal  obstructions;  nutrition  and  sense  defects.  With  a  few  ex- 
ceptions observations  may  be  made  in  a  general  way  without  per- 
sonal inspection  and  examination,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  a 
teacher  should  not  make  personal  individual  inspection  of  every 
child  in  his  room  and  construct  a  record  card  for  the  sixteen  head- 
ings outlined  in  this  bulletin. 

The  observational  method  of  studying  children  which  is  here  recom- 
mended is  one  that  may  be  made  just  as  scientific  as  the  observer's 
training  and  opportunities  permit.  .  It  is  a  method  which  takes  the 
physiology  into  the  schoolroom  and  applies  it  to  practical  everyday 
problems;  the  directions  offered  are  those  which  can  be  followed 
by  the  average  trained  teacher.  The  advantages  of  such  a  method 
are  at  once  apparent  because  the  material  is  always  at  hand,  obser- 
vations of  a  very  practical  nature  may  be  undertaken,  and  the  teacher 
is  led  to  adjust  her  instruction  to  the  individual  needs  of  pupils. 
The  chief  difficulty  involved  in  the  method  is  that  teachers  at  first 
find  it  difficult  to  observe  their  children  and  teach  them  at  the  same 
time,  but  principals,  teachers  and  student  observers,  who  have  care- 
fully undertaken  the  work  with  prepared  outlines,  claim  they  soon 
become  very  accurate  observers  and  that  there  is  no  interference 
with  their  actual  work  of  instruction.  They  learn  to  observe  the  chil- 
dren as  they  pass  to  and  from  classes,  during  the  study  period, 
during  the  intermission  or  rest  pauses,  or  during  special  periods  .in 
the  day  set  aside  for  observing,  measuring  and  testing.  As  a  result 
teachers  are  soon  led  to  see  for  themselves  that  children  differ  greatly 
from  each  other  and  from  adults,  and,  therefore,  different  standards 
and  methods  are  applicable.  Attention  is  drawn  to  the  physical  and 
mental  development  and  directly  to  the  learning  process.  In  short, 
the  teacher  is  brought  face  to  face  with  the  problem  of  how  children 
learn,  which  is  the  center  of  reference  for  all  good  teaching. 

Educational  psychologists  have  necessarily  been  interested  in  the 
relationship  of  mind  and  body,  but  it  is  only  recently  that  they  have 
extended  their  study  beyond  the  senses  and  noted  how  physical  ab- 
normalities and  defects  condition  mental  development.  One  is  also 
surprised  to  find  how  little  the  average  teacher  and  student  observe 
in  regard  to  tho  physical  nature  of  the  child.  Principals  and  teachers 


6  Bulletin  of  The  University  of  Texas 

who  are  college  graduates  with  experience  are  found  to  be  unable  to 
measure  children  correctly,  note  the  common  signs  of  abnormalities 
or  test  for  the  acuity  of  the  senses. 

The  observing  teachers  and  students  will  wish  to  supplement  this 
general  outline  with  some  further  information  on  the  work  of  the 
medical  inspector  or  physical  director  and,  also,  to  consult  freely  the 
classified  list  of  appended  references.  The  main  purpose  is  to  help 
teachers  to  detect  gross  deformities  and  pronounced  physical  de- 
fects, to  appreciate  the  educational  significance  of  the  relation  of 
the  body  to  the  mind  and  to  develop  the  desire  to  appeal  to  expert 
authority  when  conditions  seem  to  require  it.  In  no  case  should  the 
teacher  assume  the  role  of  the  physician  or  the  expert. 

This  syllabus,  as  outlined  above,  is  designed  for  students  attend- 
ing class  exercises  in  training  schools  and  universities  or  for  teach- 
ers actively  engaged  in  school  work.  The  observations  are  divided 
into  two  groups :  (A)  those  which  are  made  by  means  of  personal 
inspection,  examination,  and  measurement,  and  (B)  some  general 
observations  to  be  made  in  the  school  room  or  in  the  laboratory. 
Either  group  of  observations  may  be  pursued  independently,  but  the 
one  naturally  supplements  the  other.  No  elaborate  apparatus  is  nec- 
essary; the  aim  has  been  to  keep  the  scope  of  the  work  within 
the  experience  of  a  trained  teacher. 

The  interrogative  form  of  suggestion  has  been  used  in  connection 
with  each  topic  in  order  to  arouse  definite,  specific  questions  in  the 
mind  of  the  observer.  In  nearly  all  cases  a  few  answers  to  these 
questions  have  been  given. 

It  is  not  expected  any  student  or  teacher  will  be  able  to  answer 
all  the  questions  or  to  include  all  the  observations  after  one  or  two 
visits.  Some  of  the  questions  require  consecutive  observations  from 
day  to  day,  and  a  few  refer  to  exceptional  conditions.  All  are  prac- 
tical and  each  has  been  based  on  active  schoolroom  conditions. 

Careful  notes  should  be  recorded  in  a  permanent  note  book  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  will  be  self-explanatory  and  accessible  for 
future  reference.  The  following  order  is  suggested:  (a)  the  name 
of  the  observer;  (b)  the  name  of  the  school;  (c)  the  grade;  (d) 
the  subject;  (e)  the  size  of  the  class;  (f)  the  time  of  day;  (g)  the 
date ;  (h)  a  brief  statement  of  the  purpose  of  the  observations,  and  a 
careful  written  summary  of  the  results. 

Record  blanks  or  cards  similar  to  the  one  given  on  the  last  page 
of  this  Bulletin  should  be  made  so  that  consecutive  records  can  be 
kept  for  the  entire  school  life  of  each  individual;  these  should  be 
kept  within  easy  access  of  the  teacher's  desk  for  ready  reference. 

I.     HEIGHT.    II.     WEIGHT. 

Height  and  weight  are  among  the  best  indices  of  growth  and 
nutrition.  Observations  lead  us  to  conclude  children  vary  according 
to  race,  sex,  heredity,  and  stae-e  of  development.  The  latter,  which 
is  of  direct  concern  to  the  teacher,  varies  in  accordance  with  facts 
which  may  be  observed.  The  growth  is  most  rapid  during-  the  first 
year  of  childhood,  there  is  a  slight  acceleration  at  seven  and  a 


Notes  on  School  Observation  1 

decided  increase  from  twelve  to  eighteen,  with  marked  sex  differences 
at  adolescence,  the  increase  appearing  with  girls  earlier  than  with 
boys,  and  the  rapid  growth  and  advent  of  maturity  appearing  first 
with  tall  boys  and  tall  girls.  (For  details  see  table  and  charts  on 
pages  8,  10,  and  11.  The  averages  here  are  a  trifle  above  those  found 
by  nearly  all  other  investigators.  The  children  were  niide  in  all 
cases.) 

The  most  rapid  growth  period  for  boys  who  are  taller  than 
the  average  is  from  13  to  14  years  of  age,  and  for  those  below  the 
average  14  to  15  years  of  age ;  for  girls  above  the  average  the  most 
rapid  growth  is  between  11%  and  12%  years  of  age ;  for  those  below, 
between  12%  and  13%  years  of  age.  These  periods  of  adolescence 
are  the  periods  of  greatest  range  of  differences  in  height  for  both 
boys  and  girls.  The  results  of  my  investigations  show  marked  indi- 
vidual differences,  and  prove  that  a  composite  curve  of  average 
measurements  from  different  groups  of  individuals  cannot  give  an 
accurate  conception  of  growth,  since  the  characteristics  of  different 
types  of  the  same  chronological  age,  but  different  physiological  ages, 
tend  to  obliterate  each  other.  (These  conclusions,  Chart  I  and  Fig- 
ures II  and  III  are  from  a  preliminary  report  of  an  investigation 
which  has  been  extended  and  will  be  published  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C.) 

It  is  more  difficult  for  teachers  to  get  the  weight  of-  children  than 
to  get  their  height,  since  scales  are  not  often  available.  The  weights 
of  children  fluctuate  a  great  deal  more  than  the  heights,  but  in 
general  the  curves  of  weight  follow  the  curves  of  height. 

The  lower  forms  of  mentally  deficient  children,  such  as  idiots, 
imbeciles  and  feeble-minded,  are  larger  than  normal  children  at 
birth,  but  usually  fall  below  the  normal  children  during  the  school 
period. 


8 


Bulletin  of  The- I'nh-f  rsily  of 


TABLE  I. 

HEIGHT  AND  AGE  DISTRIBUTION  AND  WEIGHT  AND  AGE  DISTRI- 
BUTION, UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  ELEMENTARY  AND  HIGH 
toCHOOL  AND  FRANCIS  W.  PARKER  SCHOOL  CHILDREN. 

Median  height  in  Median  weight  in 

centimeters.  pounds. 

Boys.  Girls.  Boys.  Girls. 

6          116  114  48  46 

6%     119  118  52  47 

7          : 121  121  52  48 

7%     125  124  56  49 

8          128  125  58  52 

8%     131  127  61  54 

9          132  130  59  59 

9%     137  131  63  60 

10         137  136  68  65 

10y2     139  138  69  66 

11         138  141  72  67 

11%     142  144  73  73 

12         146  146  77  76 

12%     146  149  78  84 

13         150  153  87  96 

13% 152  155  88  96 

14         155  157  93  103 

14V2     159  158  103  104 

15  .  . 164  159  106  112 

15%     165  159  109  112 

16         -. 167  160  113  109 

16%     167  161  115  113 

17 170  160  125  114 

17% 171  163  128  116 

Total  number  of  cases 1587  2372  1464  2101 

Total  number  of  individuals 813  903  580  843 


Fig.  I — Stadiometer. 


Notes  on  School  Observation  9 

A.      INDIVIDUAL  OBSERVATION  AND  INSPECTION. 

In  order  to  have  a  basis  for  intelligent  comparison  every  teacher  should 
accurately  measure  and  weigh  a  few  children.  The  height  measurement 
may  be  taken  with  a  measuring  rod  or  tape  tf  no  stadiometer  is  accessible, 
deductions  being  made  for  the  heels  of  the  shoes.  The  person  measuring 
should  be  careful  to  see  that  the  child  is  standing  straight,  with  heels  to- 
gether, and  heels,  upper  part  of  the  back  and  head  against  the  measuring 
rod,  and  in  a  natural  position.  Measurements  will  vary  a  little  at  different 
times  of  day  and  with  different  measurers;  try  to  keep  a  standard  method 
of  procedure  as  far  as  possible.  The  measurements  may  be  taken  either 
In  the  English  or  French  system  of  units,  but  the  latter  is  more  easily 
used  in  making  comparative  studies. 

If  no  scales  are  available  the  teacher  may  as  a  last  resource  ask  the 
child  its  weight;  this,  as  a  rule,  is  not  a  reliable  source  of  information. 
Deductions  should  be  made  for  clothing  if  the  child  is  weighed. 

All  records  should  be  compared  with  those  of  the  medical  inspector  or 
physical  director  and  with  the  norms  in  the  chart  on  page  8. 

1.  Give  measurements  for  height.  For  weight.  Compare  in  tabulated 
form  with  the  norms  on  the  preceding  page  and  note  whether  the  child's 
growth  is  arrested  or  above  normal.  In  making  such  comparisons  keep  in 
mind  such  modifying  factors  as  race,  heredity,  environmental  conditions, 
etc. 

Make  a  careful  table  showing  your  results. 

CURVES  OF  INDIVIDUAL  GROWTH  IN  HEIGHT  AND  WEIGHT. 

These  charts  represent  graphically  the  growth  in  height  and  weight 
of  14  boys  and  11  girls.  The  charts  were  plotted  on  large  white  sheets 
of  linen  paper,  six  feet  by  three  feet,  and  were  reduced,  when  photo- 
graphed, to  the  size  printed  in  this  monograph.  Originally  10  centimeters 
in  the  vertical  scale  equalled  10  centimeters  in  height,  and  10  centimeters 
horizontally  equalled  12  months  in  time;  10  centimeters  vertically  also 
equaled  10  pounds  in  weight.  The  Roman  numbers  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  curves  refer  to  individuals. 

There  are  many  characteristics  to  be  noted  in  these  charts  that  are 
common  to  the  growth  of  children  in  general,  i.  e.,  the  advent  of  pubescent 
acceleration  is  directly  correlated  with  the  initial  height  at  this  period. 
There  is  a  parallelism  in  growth  which  is  so  uniform  that  if  the  relative 
position  of  a  child  is  known  in  reference  to  a  given  median  at  a  given 
age  it  is  possible  to  prophesy  quite  accurately  the  height  to  which  the 
child  will  grow  at  any  age  after  this  and  before  eighteen  years.  The 
majority  of  normal  children  grow  in  accordance  with  the  general  trend 
of  these  curves;  there  are  some  children  whose  growth  is  more  irregular 
than  these  charts  would  seem  to  indicate;  there  are  others  whose  growth 
rates  are  more  uniform  with  no  acceleration  at  adolescence.  There  is  a 
moderate  decrease  in  increments  after  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  until  the 
pubescent  stage  which  varies  in  advent  in  accordance  with  the  height 
of  the  individual. 

Follow  each  curve  for  height  and  see  how  individuals  differ.  Compare 
the  growth  in  height  and  weight  for  each  individual.  Compare  boys  and 
girls.  Number  2  in  Fig.  II  is  a  tall,  heavy  boy.  Number  1  in  Fig.  Ill  is  a 
tall  girl  who  weighed  150  pounds  when  12  years  three  months  old. 


10  Jiullcfiii  of  The  University  of  T<.r<t* 

Growth  Curves  in  Height  and. Weight  for  Boys. 

3 14 

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Notes  on  School  Observation 
Growth  Curves  in  Height  and  Weight  for  Girls. 


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12  nullclin  of  Th<    (' itii'crsihj  of  Texas 

B.      GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Observe  for  cases  of  normal  development,  over  development,  and 
arrested  physical  development. 

2.  What  physical  defects  have  interfered  with  normal  development  in 
height  and  weight — lameness,  blindness,  lack  of  nutrition,  etc.? 

3.  What  are  the  noticeable  effects  of  arrested  physical  development — 
under  size,  not  well  proportioned,  etc.? 

4.  What  are  the  probable  causes  of  arrested  development — accidents, 
impure  air,  etc.? 

5.  What  possible   helps  lie  within  the   power  of  the  teacher — syste- 
matic exercise,  directions  for  right  habits  of  living,  etc.? 

6.  Describe   in   detail   the   characteristic   changes   observable   at   ado- 
lescence— rapid  growth,  emotional  stress,  etc. 

7.  In  what  way  does  the   development  of  girls  differ  at  adolescence 
from  boys — rapid  growth  appears  first,  etc.? 

References: 

Hastings,  W'm.  W.  A  Manual  of  Physical  Measurements,  Boys  and 
Girls,  with  Anthropometric  Tables  for  each  height  of  each  age,  from  five 
to  twenty  years.  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Searer,  Jay  W.     Anthropometry.     O.  A.  Dorman  Co.,  New  Haven. 

Baldwin,  B.  T.  Individual  Differences  in  the  Correlation  of  Physical 
Growth  of  Elementary  and  High  School  Pupils.  J.  of  Ed.  Psychol.,  II: 
150-151. 

Boas,  F.  W.  Growth  of  Toronto  Children.  Rep.  U.  S.  Com.  Ed., 
1896-7:1541. 

Boas,  F.  W.     Growth  of  Children.     Sci.,  N.  S.,  V:  570. 

Burk,  F.  Growth  of  Children  in  Height  and  Weight.  Am.  Jour.  Psy., 
IX:253-326. 

Bryan,  E.  B.  Nascent  Stages  and  Their  Significance.  Ped.  Sem.,  VII: 
357-398. 

Porter,  W.  S.  Growth  of  St.  Louis  Children.  Trans.  Acad.  Sci.  of  St. 
Louis,  VI,  No.  12. 

III.     CHEST  GIRTHS.    IV.     LUNG  CAPACITY. 

It  is  highly  important  that  teachers  pay  more  attention  to  the 
development  of  the  pupil's  lung  capacity,  not  only  because  there 
is  a  close  correlation  between  physical  growth  and  breathing 
capacity,  but  because  the  breathing  capacity  may  be  greatly  in- 
creased through  proper  exercise.  This  may  be  accomplished  through 
out-door  gymnastics,  -through  systematic  breathing  exercises,  and 
through  correct  posture.  At  adolescence,  boys  begin  to  have  a  strik- 
ingly greater  capacity  than  girls,  and  the  girls  need  special  atten- 
tion at  this  period. 

A.      INDIVIDUAL  OBSERVATION  AND  INSPECTION. 

These  measurements  are  so  important  that  they  are  frequently  referred 
to  as  indices  of  vital  capacity.  It  is  important  the  tape  be  kept  uniformly 
taut  around  the  chest  just  below  the  arms.  The  child  should  be  asked 
to  take  a  deep,  full  breath  in  order  to  get  the  measurement  for  forced 
inhalation  and  to  exhale  as  completely  as  possible  in  order  to  get  the 
measurement  for  forced  exhalation. 

The  lung  capacity  of  girls  falls  below  boys  at  twelve  years  of  age; 
future  development  may  be  impaired  by  dress,  posture,  etc.  Lung  capacity 
is  tested  by  means  of  a  spirometer.  If  a  spirometer  is  not  at  hand,  a 
comparative  method  may  be  devised  which  may  suggest,  together  with 
the  measurements  of  chest  expansion,  unusual  conditions  of  lung  capacity. 
For  example,  try  the  blowing  out  of  a  wax  taper  or  the  blowing  over  of 
a  light  block  at  distances  which  have  become  standardized  through  ex- 
periments on  normal  children.  These  are  crude  and  inaccurate  tests,  but 
they  may  help  to  suggest  unusual  cases. 


Notes  on  School  Observation 


13 


Fig.  IV.     Spirometer. 


1.  Make  a  table  of  the  measurements  for  each  child  measured. 

2.  Do   these   measurements   indicate   shallow   respiration   or   lack   of 
lung  capacity? 

3.  Compare    the    measurements     of    different    children    at    all     ages 
and  give  your  conclusions,  taking  into  consideration  the  child's  experience 
in  taking  deep  breaths,  the  teacher's  experience  in  measuring,  and  the 
deductions  for  clothing. 

4.  Does  the  ability  to  take  a  deep  breath  and  hold  it  vary  with  dif- 
ferent children?     Why — lack  of  voluntary  control,  inexperience,  etc.? 

5.  Is  there  any  relation  between  extremes  in  chest  girth  and  habits  of 
exercise — the  athlete,  "book  worm,"  etc.? 

B.      GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Enumerate  the  varieties  of  chests  noted — flat  chest,  pigeon  breast, 
etc. 

2.  What  natural  positions  of  children  in  school  tend  to  increase  chest 
capacity — sitting  erect,  correct  standing,  etc.? 

3.  How  does  sitting  too  close  to  a  desk  affect  chest  development? 

4.  What    efforts    are    made    in    schools    to    develop    the    chest — deep 
breathing,  calisthenics,  etc.? 

5.  Describe  the  ventilation  in  the  room. 

References: 

(See  Height  and  list  of  books  on  last  page.) 

Gilbert,  J.  A.  Researches  upon  School  Children  and  College  Students. 
University  of  Iowa  Studies,  1:1-39. 

Smedley,  F.  Report  of  Child  Study  Development.  Chicago  Board  of 
Education,  XL VI:  (No.  2),  1-72. 

Whipple,  G.  Vital  Capacity — Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests. 
Warwick  &  York,  Baltimore,  1910:70-74. 

V..   HEAD  GIRTHS.     VI.     CEPHALIC  INDEX. 


There  is  no  direct  evidence  that  the  size  and  the  shape  of  skull  ar« 
closely  related  to  intelligence,  but  there  are  limitations  byond  which 
the  relationship  is  quite  apparent.  Extremes  are  found  among  men- 
tally deficient  children  and  are  known  as  microcephalic,  or  very  small 
Bkull,  and  macrocephalic,  or  very  large  skull,  and  hydrocephalic, 
or  progressive  development  of  the  skull  after  normal  growth.  The 
circumference  of  the  head  is  as  a  rule  greater  for  boys  than  for  girls. 


14:  Jinll<lin  of  The  University  of  Texas 

The  writer  and  his  students  have  observed  some  heads  as  small  as  six- 
teen inches  in  circumference  and  others  as  large  as  twenty-six  inches. 
The  average  circumference  of  the  heads  of  American  boys  and  girls 
is  about  as  follows:  For  boys  at  6  years,  20%  inches;  for  girls, 
19  4/5  inches;  for  boys  at  9  years  20  3/5  inches,  for  girls  20  1/5 
inches;  for  boys  at  12  years  21  inches,  for  girls  20  4/5  inches;  for 
boys  at  15  years  21  3/5  inches,  for  girls  21  1/5  inches;  for  boys  at 
18  years  22  1/5  inches,  for  girls  21  3/5  inches. 

A.      INDIVIDUAL  OBSERVATION  AND  INSPECTION. 

The  cephalic  index  is  the  proportion  of  the  greatest  width  (bi-parietal 
diameter)  to  the  greatest  length  (antero-posterior  diameter).  If  head 
calipers  are  not  at  hand  rough  measurements  may  be  made  by  means  of 
a  ruler  and  tape.  The  indices  for  long  heads  (dolichocephalic)  are  below 
78  per  cent,  and  are  found  among  English,  Irish,  Negroes,  etc.  The 
broad  head  (brachycephalic)'  has  an  index  above  80  per  cent,  and  is  found 
among  Germans,  Russians,  etc. 

Measure  with  a  tape  the  head  at  its  greatest  circumference,  just 
above  the  eyes  and  ears. 

1.  List  all  measurements  made  and  compare  them  with  the  normi 
that  have  just  been  given.  (We  recently  found  a  very  intelligent  boy  of  9 
years  with  a  head  circumference  of  20.75  inches  and  a  cephalic  index  of 
68.52  per  cent.) 

B.      GENERAL.  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Observe    for   racial    types    of   heads,    and   describe    each    as    far    as 
possible. 

2.  Observe  for  asymmetries  and   deformities  of  the  head. 

3.  Sketch  some  different  types  of  heads  noticed. 

References: 

Baldwin,  B.  T.     Crainometry,  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  II. 

Galton,  F.  Head  Growth  in  Students  at  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
Nature,  XXXVIII:  14. 

Lee,  A.  Study  of  the  Correlation  of  the  Human  Skull.  Sci.,  N.  S., 
XII:  946-49. 

MacDonald,  A.  An  Experimental  Study  of  Children,  etc.  Rep.  U.  S. 
Com.  Ed.,  1897-8:985-1204. 

VII.     ASYMMETRY  OF  BODY. 


Most  children  and  adults  do  not  have  symmetrical  bodies. 

Observe  your  children  and  see  if  you  can  find  some  whose  bodies 
are  symmetrical  and  others  whose  bodies  are  not  symmetrical  but 
asymmetrical.  Do  some  have  one  shoulder  lower  than  the  other? 


Fig.  V.     Normal  Type. 


Fig.  VI.     A  Defective. 


Notes  on  School  Observation 


15 


B.      GENERAL,  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Observe  carefully  for  marked  examples  in  asymmetry  of  face,  eyes, 
tars,  shoulders,  etc. 

2.  Which  of  these  may  be  cured?     How? 

3.  What   are    some    possible    causes   due    to    school-room    habits — im- 
proper lighting,  posture,  etc.? 

4.  What  ones  are  due  to  sitting  in  desks  too  high  or  too  low — asym- 
metrical shoulders,  etc.? 

5.  Illustrate,  by  means  of  sketches,  some  prominent  asymmetries  noted. 

6.  Describe  the  physical  characteristics  of  a  defective  child  noted. 

References: 

(See  Posture.) 

VIII.     POSTURE. 


Desk  Too  High. 
Figs.  VII,  VIII,  IX.      (After  Shaw  and  Berry.) 


Posture  is  the  result  of  habit  and  it  is  the  teacher's  function  to 
correct  habits  of  improper  bodily  posture  and  movement.  Do  the 
children  stand  correctly  ?  Walk  correctly  ?  If  not,  how  may  these 
defects  be  corrected?  There  are  two  ways- — vigilance  on  your  part 


16  Bulletin  of  The  University  of  Texas 

and  correct  desks.  If  the  desks  are  not  adjustable  and  adapted  to 
the  age  of  the  pupils  do  not  let  your  principal  or  directors  rest  until 
they  get  such  desks,  and  then  do  not  fail  to  see  that  each  pupil  is  in 
the  proper  desk  and  that  each  desk  is  readjusted  at  least  twice  each 
term. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  teachers  in  the  middle  and  upper 
grades  of  the  schools  pay  more  attention  to  the  habits  of  posture 
for  these  are  habits  that  the  student  may  carry  through  their  entire 
life,  and  they  will  be  a  great  benefit  or  injury  to  the  health  and 
welfare  of  the  child  in  general. 

B.      GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Note  correct  and  incorrect  carriage  of  head — erect,  stooping,  etc. 

2.  Note  correct  and  incorrect  position  of  shoulders — stooped,  one  lower 
than  the  other,  etc.      (There  is  frequently  a  correlation  between  posture 
and   mental  habits.) 

3.  Note  general  position  while  sitting,  standing  and  walking — erect, 
graceful,  etc. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  causes  of  incorrect  posture — desks,  fatigue, 
depressed    mental   attitude,   etc.? 

5.  What  are  some  characteristic  bad  positions — sitting  on  one  foot, 
back  in  and  abdomen  prominent  (lordosis),  etc.? 

6.  How  does  a  pupil's  position  differ  when  reading,  writing  or  drawing 
at  a  desk? 

6.  Sketch  a  desk  which  will  satisfactorily  permit  of  the  three  position! 
noted  in  the  preceding  question.     (Make  the  desk  and  chair  adjustable  in 
height,  forward  and  backward,  and  the  top  of  the  desk  adjustable  for  a 
flat  surface  of  varying  angles.) 

7.  Will  such  a  desk  ever  take  the  place  of  vigilant  supervision  and 
drill? 

8.  What  exercises  are  given  to   educate  the  pupils'   bodies  in  right 
habits  of  posture — gymnastics,  marching,  etc.? 

9.  Make  a  diagram  showing  the  number  and  distribution  of  the  desks. 

References: 

Krohn.  Habitual  Postures  of  School  Children.  Child  Study  Monthly. 
October,  1895. 

Lander-Brunton.  On  Posture  and  Its  Indications.  Pop.  Sci.  Mo., 
XLII:26. 

McKenzie.  Influence  of  School  Life  on  the  Curvature  of  the  Spin*. 
Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1898:939. 

Mosher.     Habitual  Postures  of  School  Children.     Ed.  Rev.,  IV:  339. 

Mulliner,    M.   R.      The   Educ.   Bi-Monthly,   III,  No.    3. 

IX.     TEETH. 

It  is  estimated  85  to  95  per  cent  of  school  children  have  varying 
degrees  of  defective  teeth.  The  temporary  teeth  are  lost  between 
the  ages  of  six  and  twelve.  There  are  no  bicuspids  in  the  temporary 
set,  and  when  they  appear  at  the  age  of  six  or  seven  they  are  fre- 
quently mistaken  for  temporary  teeth  and  extracted  or  neglected. 

There  are  thirty-two  permanent  teeth  and  they  are  complete, 
aside  from  the  third  molars  or  "wisdom  teeth, "  at  the  age  of 
thirteen. 

The  following  table  gives  the  names  and  order  of  the  permanent 
teeth : 


Notes  on  /School  Observation  17 

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Table  II.    Number  and  Location  of  Permanent  Teeth. 

Decayed  teeth  are  injurious  to  the  pupil's  health  and  detract  much 
from  the  personal  appearance.  You  may  ask  the  child  to  open  his 
mouth,  note  the  number  of  decayed,  protruding  and  irregular  teeth, 
and  if  there  is  no  medical  inspector  you  should  notify  the  principal 
or  parent  that  attention  to  the  child's  teeth  at  this  time  will  be  very 
beneficial.  Parents  are  usually  glad  to  receive  any  information  that 
will  be  of  direct  benefit  to  their  children,  and  if  teachers  use  common 
sense  and  politeness  in  notifying  them  of  defects,  these  suggestions 
in  nearly  all  cases  will  be  gladly  received. 

A.      INDIVIDUAL  OBSERVATION  AND  INSPECTION. 

1.  Ask  the  child  to  open  his  mouth  and  note  the  number  of  teeth 
present. 

2.  How  many  teeth  are  decayed? 

3.  Are    the    teeth    irregular,    serrated    or    protruding,    thus    needing 
to  be  straightened? 

4.  Do  the  teeth  receive  proper  attention  daily — cleaning,  etc.? 

5.  What  are  the  effects  of  bad  teeth — foul  breath,  insufficient  mastica- 
tion of  food,  infection  of  glands,  etc.? 

6.  Observe  for  poor  nutrition,  pallor,  open  mouth,  swollen  gums,  de- 
fective artriculation. 

B.      GENERAL,  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Poor  teeth  generally  indicate   malnutrition  and  poor  health.      Do 
your  observations  verify  this? 

2.  How  do  decayed  teeth  affect  the  health — centers  for  infection,  in- 
terference with  proper  mastication  of  food,  etc.? 

3.  What   additional    defects   frequently   accompany   defective   teeth — 
toothache,  reflex  earache,  tuberculosis,  etc.? 

4.  Why   are   such   teeth   so   prevalent— cheap   candies,    neglect,    poor 
health,  etc.? 

6.  Mentally  defective  children  seldom  have  good  teeth.  Do  your 
observations  agree  with  this? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  causes  of  irregular  and  protruding  teeth — 
need  of  extraction,  sucking  fingers,  etc.? 

7.  What  may  teachers  do  to  remedy  defects — notify  parent  or  proper 
authority,  advise  pupil,  etc.? 

References: 

Burnham,  W.  H.     The  Hygiene  of  the  Teeth.     Ped.  Sem.,  XIII:  293-306. 

Johnson,  G.  E.  The  Condition  of  the  Teeth  of  Children  in  Public 
Schools.  Ped.  Sem.,  VIII: 45-58. 

X.     ENLARGED  TONSILS.     XI.     ADENOIDS. 

Hypertrophied  tonsils  are  found  not  only  to  be  the  starting  point 
for  certain  diseases,  but  sometimes  direct  conditions  of  mental  de- 
fects. They  are  almost  invariably  associated  with  adenoids  and  the 


18 


Bulb  tin  of  Tin    Cnir<  i  xilij  of  Texas 


best  authorities  claim  that  at  least  5  to  10  per  cent  of  American  chil- 
dren have  them.  They  frequently  produce  nervous  troubles  and 
may  lead  to  inattention,  lack  of  application,  etc.  No  teacher 
should  ever  undertake  to  assume  the  role  of  physician  in  pre- 
scribing remedies  or  operations.  Her  function  is  to  try  to  learn 
how  to  recognize  defects  and  deformities  and,  providing  these  are 
not  due  to  schoolroom  habits  which  can  be  corrected,  report  them 
to  the  proper  authorities  for  correction  or  treatment.  In  order 
to  observe  the  enlarged  tonsils,  -you  ask  the  child  to  face  the 
light,  open  his  mouth,  put  out  his  tongue  and  say  "ti."  This  will 
throw  the  back  part  of  the  tongue  down  in  such  a  way  that  the 
throat  is  exposed.  Try  this  with  several  children  and  you  will  soon 
learn  to  detect  enlarged  tonsils,  which  are  large  irregular  glands 
on  either  side  of  the  throat,  sometimes  almost  closing  it.  Compare 
the  throat  with  the  sketches  in  your  physiology  books.  Do  not  use  a 
tongue  depresser  under  any  conditions  unless  you  know  it  has  just 
been  sterilized. 

The  symptoms  or  signs  of  adenoids  are  not  differentiated  from 
hypertrophied  tonsils.  Adenoids  grow  in  the  vault  of  the  pharynx  up 
and  behind  the  soft  palate  and  vary  greatly  in  size.  (See  sketches, 
natural  size.)  They  are  difficult  to  observe  directly  and  can  seldom 
be  seen  with  the  throat  mirror  or  felt  with  the  finger.  Under  no 
conditions  should  the  teacher  attempt  either  of  these  methods.  For 
the  common  signs  of  adenoids  see  the  questions  and  suggestions  on 
the  following  page. 

Naso-pharyngeal  obstructions,  due  to  adenoids,  frequently  affect 
hearing.  Teachers  should  know  the  common  symptoms  and  evil 
effects  and  have  the  physician  consulted.  The  removal  of  adenoids 
is  a  minor  operation  in  most  instances,  and  should  be  done  if  recom- 
mended by  a  thoroughly  competent  physician  or  specialist. 


Fig.  X — A.  Adenoids.     T.   Enlarged  Tonsils. 


Notes  on  School  Observation  19 


Fig.  XI.     Adenoids.     (After  Osier.) 


A.      INDIVIDUAL  OBSERVATION  AND  INSPECTION  FOR  ENLARGED 

TONSILS. 

1.  Are  there  large  irregular  bunches  of  glands  on  either  side  of  the 
throat,   almost  closing  it?      If   so,   the  tonsils   are   enlarged.      (Compare 
with  sketch  and  allow  for  the  age  of  the  child,  degree  of  exposure  and 
other  modifying  influences.) 

2.  Is  the  uvula  free  from  the  tonsils? 

3.  Are  the  tonsils  red,  patched  or  crypted? 

4.  Observe  carefully  for  chronic  cases;   acute  cases,  caused  by  colds, 
etc. 

A.      INDIVIDUAL  OBSERVATIONS  AND  INSPECTION  FOR  ADENOIDS. 

1.  Does  the  child  breathe  through  his  mouth? 

2.  Are  his  tonsils  enlarged? 

3.  Is  the  palate  high  and  V  shaped?  The  upper  jaw  narrowed? 

4.  Is  there  poor  articulation?     Can  the  child  pronounce  M  and  N  cor- 
rectly? 

5.  Does  the  voice  lack  resonance  and  have  a  dull  nasal  quality? 

6.  Is  smell  impaired? 

B.      GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

Several  of  the  questions  asked  under  A.  may  be  continued  under  thl» 
division  of  general  observations.  Compare  doubtful  cases  with  the  chil- 
dren in  the  accompanying  photographs  who  represent  type  cases. 

1.  Does  the  child  have  a  dull,  listless  facial  expression? 

2.  Is  the  mouth  usually  open  and  are  the  lips  thick?     Does  the  child 
have  crooked  teeth  and  an  underdeveloped  chin? 

3.  Is  the  nose  large  and  are  the  orifices  small? 

4.  Is  there  a  defective  thorax  with  stooped  shoulders? 

5.  Is  the  hearing  apparently  affected? 

6.  Does  the  child  lack  vitality?     Is  it  irritable?      (An  affirmative  an- 
swer to  the  majority  of  these  questions  would  indicate  the  presence  of 
adenoids.) 

7.  Observe  a  child  from  whom  adenoids  have  been  removed.     What 
are  the  noticeable  results — revived  vitality,  brighter  expression,  etc.? 

References: 

Burnahm,  W.  H.      The  Hygiene  of  the  Nose.     Fed.  Sem.,  XV:  15 5-1 69. 

Crockett,  E.  A.  Some  Diseases  of  the  Nose  and  Throat  of  Interest  to 
Teachers.  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1903:1028-1031. 

McMahon,  J.  P.  Necessity  for  Annual  Systematic  Examination  of 
School  Children's  Eyes,  Ears,  Noses,  and  Throats  by  School  Teachers. 
Wisconsin  Med.  Jour.,  Dec.,  1907. 

Schenck,  H.  D.  The  Detection  of  Defects  of  the  Eye,  Ear,  Nose,  and 
Throat.  Report  of  the  Annual  Conference  of  Sanitary  Officers  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  1907. 

Wyche,  G.  Inspection  of  School  Children,  with  Special  Reference  to 
jCar,  Nose,  and  Throat.  St.  Louis  Med.  Rev.,  May  4,  1907. 

Wengiarl,  W.  Adenoids.  Med.  Monograph  Series  No.  9,  London,  1904. 
128  pp. 


20  Bulletin  of  The  University  of  Texas 

XII.    NASAL  OBSTRUCTIONS. 

These  are,  as  a  rule,  associated  with  enlarged  tonsils  and  adenoids, 
but  there  may  be  other  causes.  Defects  of  nose  and  throat  are 
among  the  most  numerous,  if  we  except  those  of  the  teeth. 

Ask  the  child  to  take  a  deep  breath,  press  one  finger  against  the 
side  of  the  nostril  and  ask  him  to  exhale  with  closed  mouth. 

A.      INDIVIDUAL  OBSERVATION  AND  INSPECTION. 

1.  Is  the  air  passage  closed,  or  nearly  so? 

2.  Is  it  due  to  a  temporary  cold? 

3.  Are  there  indications  of  any  foreign  bodies  present  in  the  nose? 

4.  Are  the  bones  enlarged? 

5.  Is  the  septum  deflected? 

6.  Are  there  indications  of  chronic  inflammation  or  adenoid  growths? 

7.  Observe  also  for  catarrhal  obstructions  or  nasal  discharges. 

References: 

(See  Enlarged  Tonsils  and  Adenoids.) 

XIII.    NUTRITION. 

An  average  teacher  will  have  very  little  difficulty  in  observ- 
ing marked  cases  of  poor  nutrition  among  school  children,  for 
such  children  are  usually  under  size,  have  a  pale  and  sallow  com- 
plexion and  are  very  easily  fatigued.  Try  to  find  out  what  these 
children  eat  for  lunch.  See  whether  they  have  regular  hours  of 
sleep  and  see  that  they  get  proper  exercise  and  plenty  of  fresh  air 
during  the  school  period. 

B.      GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

Observe  for  examples  of  malnutrition,  children  who  are  pale,  sallow, 
undersized,  very  susceptible  to  disease,  fretful,  easily  fatigued,  etc. 

Observe  for  anaemic  children,  or  those  of  poor  blood  supply;  try  to  as- 
certain the  causes  and  effects. 

Observe  for  rhachitis,  where  there  is  insufficient  amount  of  limes  and 
phosphates  in  the  bones.  Note  crooked  legs,  box-like  head,  stooped 
shoulders,  curvature  of  the  spine,  pale  skin,  "rickety  rosary"  of  ribs.  This 
disease  is  found  mostly  among  poorer  children  and  is  not  generally  con- 
sidered hereditary. 

1.  Outline  five  questions  showing  there  is  a  relation  between  school 
work  and  nutrition. 

2.  Observe  some  children  in  the  lunch  room.     What  do  they  eat? 

3.  What  should  a  child  eat  for  lunch? 

4.  What  are  the  causes  of  malnutrition — lack  of  food,  poor  food,  ir- 
regular hours  of  sleep,  etc.? 

5.  Why  should  the  teacher  make  a  careful  study  of  sex  hygiene? 

References: 

Baldwin,  B.  T.     Adolescence.      Psychol.   Bulletin,  VIII:  351-362. 

Gulick,  Luther  H.  Tuberculosis  and  the  Public  Schools.  Sixth  Internat. 
Cong,  on  Tuberculosis.  Transactions,  111:682-92,  Washington,  D.  C., 
1908. 

Hunt,  Caroline  L.  The  Daily  Meals  of  School  Children.  U.  S.  Gov. 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1909.  62  pp.  Free. 

Kerley,  Chas.  Nutrition  of  School  Children.  Teachers'  College  Record, 
VI,  March,  1905:43-8. 

Morey-Errant,  Derexa.  Malnutrition  and  How  It  May  Show  Itself  in 
School  Children.  Child  Study  Mo.,  and  Jr.  of  Adolescence,  1901:441. 

The  New  International  Encyclopedia.     Nutrition,  VIII: 695-6. 


Notes  on  School  Observation  21 

XIV.     NERVOUS  DISORDERS,  CHOREA,  ETC. 

See- later  Bulletin  on  Motor  Expression. 

XV.     VISION. 

The  number  of  weak  and  defective  eyes  rapidly  increases  during 
school  age.  Eye  strain  is  very  prevalent  with  children,  and  it  is 
believed  such  pupils  are  handicapped  intellectually,  but  we  have  no 
conclusive  evidence  they  are  retarded.  The  defects  increase  with 
age. 

All  teachers  should  be  able  to  observe  the  eyes  intelligently, 
test  the  acuity  of  vision,  note  pronounced  cases  of  astigmatism, 
squint,  color  blindness,  and  the  lack  of  functioning  of  the  grosser 
parts  of  the  retina.  The  eyes  should  be  examined  annually  by  the 
teacher,  also  by  an  oculist  in  cases  where  probable  defects  exist. 

In  many  of  our  best  school  systems  teachers  are  required  to  be 
able  to  test  the  children's  vision.  You  should  be  sure  to  see  that 
at  least  the  conditions  in  your  schoolroom  are  the  most  favorable  pos- 
sible for  the  protection  of  the  eyes.  Never  have  the  pupils  face  the 
light  under  any  circumstances  during  their  study  period  and  not 
during  their  recitation  period  if  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it.  The  light 
should  always  come  over  the  left  shoulder  if  this  can  be  arranged. 
Hold  a  pencil  over  a  sheet  of  white  paper  on  the  top  of  each  child's 
desk  and  see  whether  or  not  the  shadows  interfere  with  the  child's 
seeing  the  letters  as  he  writes  them.  If  the  desks  face  the  wrong 
way,  see  the  principal  or  directors  and  have  them  placed  properly. 
This  rquires  a  little  effort  on  your  part,  but  it  is  of  great  importance 
to  the  child. 

A.      INDIVIDUAL  OBSERVATION  AND  INSPECTION. 

Observe  the  pupillary  reflex  by  asking  the  child  to  look  at  a  light 
window.  Place  the  open  hand  over  the  open  eye,  then  draw  it  rapidly 
away  and  note  the  rapid  diminishing  of  the  size  of  the  pupil.  If  the  re- 
action is  slow  or  not  noticeable  the  muscles  may  be  impaired. 

1.  Observe  the  external  appearance  of  the  eye  for  inflammation,  sores, 
discharges,  etc. 

2.  If  inflammation  is  present,  try  to  ascertain  whether  it  is  due  to 
cold  or  lack  of  cleanliness  or  eye  strain. 

3.  Ask  the  child  if  his  eyes  are  easily  fatigued  during  study. 

4.  Ask  the  child  if  he  has  headaches. 

5.  Observe  for  blinking  and  spasmodic  twitching  of  the  lids. 

6.  Does  the  child  have  frequent  styes?     If  so,  it  indicates  eye  strain. 

7.  Inspect  membranous  linings  of  the  lids  if  suggestive  of  granular 
formations,  enlargement  of  glands,  and  the  presence  of  sticky  secretions 
(trachoma) . 

Ask  the  child  to  look  at  a  distant  object.  Note  external  or  internal 
squint  (strabismus).  Cover  one  eye  and  then  the  other  and  note  the 
effect.  External  squint  is  rare  among  children. 

Internal  Squint. 


External  Squint. 
Fig.    XII. 


--  Bulletin  of  Tin    I'nircrxity  of  Texas 

ACUITY  OF  VISION. 

As  the  eyes  of  children  readily  accommodate  themselves  to  ex- 
treme  conditions,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  detect  defects  in  the 
acuity  of  vision  without  making  special  tests,  which  all  teachers 
should  be  able  to  do.  The  best  tests  in  common  use  are  Snellen, 
Queen,  MacCallie. 

In  the  normal,  or  emmetropic,  eye  the  rays  of  light  are  brought 
to  a  focus  on  the  retina;  in  the  far-sighted,  or  hypermetropic,  eye 
the  rays  of  light  meet  if  continued  behind  the  retina;  in  the  near- 
.  sighted,  or  myopic,  eye  the  rays  of  light  meet  before  reaching  the 
retina,  since  the  eye  is  too  long.  The  myopic  eye  is  not  fatigued 
easily;  hyperopia  is  frequently  accompanied  by  headaches. 

A.      INDIVIDUAL  OBSERVATION  AND  INSPECTION. 

Secure  a  standard  test  card  for  determining  the  acuity  of  vision.  The 
following  directions  printed  on  the  Snellen  card  are  those  formulated 
by  Dr.  Allport  and  are  among  the  best.  They  are  as  follows: 

Do  not  expose  the  card  except  when  in  use,  as  familiarity  with  iti 
face  leads  children  to  learn  the  letters  "by  heart." 

First  grade  children  need  not  be  examined. 

The  examination  should  be  made  privately  and  singly. 

Children  already  wearing  glasses  should  be  tested  with  such  glasses 
properly  adjusted  to  the  face. 

Place  the  "Vision  Chart  for  Schools"  (Snellen)  on  the  wall  in  a  good 
light,  do  not  allow  the  face  of  the  card  to  be  covered  with  glass. 

The  line  marked  XX  (20)  should  be  seen  at  twenty  feet,  therefore,  place 
the  pupil  twenty  feet  from  the  card. 

Each  eye  should  be  examined  separately. 

Hold  a  card  over  one  eye  while  the  other  is  being  examined.  Do  not 
press  upon  the  covered  eye,  as  pressure  might  induce  an  incorrect  exami- 
nation. 

Have  the  pupil  begin  at  the  top  of  the  test  card  and  read  down  as  far 
as  he  can,  first  with  one  eye  and  then  with  the  other. 

If  the  child  can  read  the  majority  of  the  letters  with  a  line  marked 
XX,  the  result  should  be  recorded  as  20/20.  If  he  fails  to  read  these 
and  can  read  the  majority  of  those  above  the  result  is  recorded  as  20/30, 
which  means  that  this  eye  at  twenty  feet  can  see  what  the  normal  eye 
sees  at  thirty  feet,  and  so  on  up  the  scale.  Children  who  have  one 
eye  20/30  or  20/40  may  not  know  it. 

1.      Make  careful  records  of  the  examinations  in  your  note  book. 

B.      GENERAL,  OBSERVATIONS. 

Hyperopia  is  common  among  children  before  school  age,  but  myopia  is 
very  prevalent  during  the  school  period. 

1.  Note  signs  of  myopia,  such  as  holding  the  book  near  the  face,  etc. 

2.  Can  the  child  see  the  writing  on  the  board? 

3.  What  conditions  tend  to  reduce  myopia — proper  lighting,  seating, 
etc.? 

4.  Describe  the  movements  made  by  children  with  imperfect  vision — 
leaning  forward,  strained,  facial  expression,  etc. 

5.  Should  elementary  text-books  have  large  type?     If  not,  why  not? 

6.  What  proportion  of  the  children  wear  glasses? 

7.  Describe  the  lighting  of  the  room.      Make  a  diagram  showing  the 
number  and  location  of  the  windows  and  black  board. 

8.  Describe  the  kind  of  window  shades  in  use. 


Xotes  on  School  Observation  23 

OTHER  DEFECTS. 

A.      INDIVIDUAL  OBSERVATION  AND  INSPECTION. 

Astigmatism.  This  may  be  tested  with  cards,  but  constant  headaches 
and  signs  of  eye  strain  on  the  part  of  the  child  are  for  the  average 
teacher  the  most  satisfactory  indications.  Astigmatism  may  be  due 
to  asymmetry  of  the  cornea  or  .of  the  lens.  All  eyes  are  slightly  astig- 
matic and  compound  forms  in  connection  with  myopia  and  hyperopia 
are  most  common. 

1.  Test  with  cards  included   in  the  sets  mentioned  above. 

2.  Question  for  headaches,  pain  in  eyes. 

3.  Are  the  eyelids  inflamed?      Is  the  head  bent  forward  when  read- 
ing?     Is  the  vision  for  near  and  far  objects  indistinct?      Does  the  child 
hold  its  head  to  one  side  when  reading? 

Asthenopia.  Observe  for  possible  signs  where  the  eyes  become  easily 
fatigued  for  near  and  distant  objects.  Such  a  condition  may  be  muscu- 
lar or  accommodative,  and  is  closely  related  to  hypermetropic  eyes. 

Color  Blindness.  Test  with  light  green,  purple  and  red.  When  picking 
shades  and  tints  resembling  green,  what  will  the  color  blind  person 
select?  Give  the  results  for  the  others.  Use  Holmgren's  tests. 

1.  Is  it  easy  to  confuse  color  blindnesss  and  color  ignorance? 

2.  Is  color  blindness  more  prevalent  with  girls  or  boys? 

3.  What  may  the  teacher  do  to  remedy  defects? 

References: 

Allport.  Frank.  Tests  for  Defective  Vision  in  School  Children.  Ed. 
Rev.,  XIV:  150-9. 

Eberhardt,  John  C.  Examination  of  the  Eyes  of  School  Children. 
Elem.  Sch.  Teacher,  VII:  263-8. 

Jaral,  M.     Daylight  in  the  Schoolroom.     Pop.  Sci.  Mon.,  XVI:  517-519. 

McCallie,  J.  M.  The  Vision  of  the  Pupils  of  an  Elementary  School, 
Tested  by  the  Snellen  Alphabet  and  Illiterate  Cards.  Psych.  Clinic,  I: 
175-82. 

Scott,  W.  D.  The  Sacrifice  of  the  Eyes  of  School  Children.  Pop.  Scl. 
Mo.,  LXXI:303-312. 

Van  Blarcom,  Carolyn  C.  The  Prevention  of  Blindness.  Prev.  of 
Blindness  Comm.,  105  E.  22nd  St.,  N.  Y.,  1910.  Free. 

Weeks,  J.  E.  The  care  of  the  Eyes  of  Children  While  at  School.  Teach- 
er's College  Record,  VI:  30-42. 

Allen,    F.      Color-Blindness.      Nature,    LXXXIII:  69-70. 

Ayers,  E.  A.      Color-Blindness.     Century,  LI:  876-889. 

Booth,  Frank  W.  Report  of  Committee  on  Statistics  of  Defective  Sight 
and  Hearing  of  Public  School  Children.  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1904,  946-952. 

Eldridge-Green,  F.  W.  Tests  for  Color-Blindness.  Nature,  LXXXIV: 
495. 

Williams,  A.  S.  Is  Color-Blindness  Preventable.  Ed.  Rev.,  XXIV: 
407-416. 

XVI.     HEARING. 

Satisfactory  apparatus  for  testing  the  hearing  of  school  children 
is  expensive,  but  you  may  be  able  to  detect  any  marked  defects  by 
asking  the  child  to  close  his  eyes  and  holding  a  watch  at  varying 
distances  from  each  ear.  The  essential  point  is  to  see  that  the  room 
is  perfectly  quiet  and  that  after  you  have  tested  several  children  a 
standard  or  normal  distance  at  which  the  tick  can  be  heard  be  deter- 
mined. Another  simple  method  of  testing  hearing  is  to  have  chil^ 
dren  sit  at  certain  distances  from  the  teacher's  desk  while  he  is  whis- 
pering words  or  asking  certain  questions  in  a  whisper. 

The  whisper  test  is  the  most  practical  test  for  teachers,  since  eight 
or  ten  pupils  may  be  tested  at  one  time,  and  it  is  the  only  test  that 


24  Bulletin  of  The  University  of  Texas 

uses  conversational  speech.  The  essential  points  for  the  teacher  to 
keep  in  mind  are :  try  to  acquire  a  uniform  whisper ;  see  that  every 
pupil  is  tested  for  different  distances  and  compare  the  pupils  with 
one  another,  since  the  results  are  always  relative.  The  test  may  be 
used  with  any  grade  of  pupils  of  different  degrees  of  intelligence.- 

The  whisper  test  is  as  follows:  Place  eight  or  ten  children  in 
a  row  with  the  first  child  ten  feet  from  the  examiner  with  one  ear 
toward  the  examiner.  Let  the  other  children  assume  the  same 
relative  "position.  The  examiner  then  whispers  the  numerals  from 
one  to  twenty,  or  pronounces  in  a  whisper  twenty  one-syllable  words. 
After  five  words  have  been  pronounced,  or  five  numerals  called, 
have  each  child  move  up  one  place,  and  the  one  at  the  head  pass 
to  the  other  end  of  the  row.  Each  child  should  be  provided  with 
paper  and  pencil  in  order  to  record  the  words.  After  all  have  been 
tested  four  times  for  one  ear,  have  each  turn  the  other  ear  and  repeat 
the  experiment.  If  a  child  does  not  hear  all  the  words  when  at  the 
nearest  distance,  he  should  be  tested  again  and  referred  to  the 
medical  examiner  or  to  his  local  physician  for  treatment  and  further 
diagnosis.  Try  this  test;  it  is  not  difficult,  and,  if  it  sounds  too 
complex,  try  it  with  one  child  at  a  time. 

The  writer  would,  however,  recommend  that  every  city  school 
system  purchase  a  Seashore  Audiometer,  which  is  described  in  the 
University  of  Iowa  Studies  in  Psychology,  1898,  II:  158-163,  and 
may  be  purchased  from  C.  H.  Stoelting  Co.,  121  N.  Green  St.,  Chicago ; 
or  a  Pilling  McCallie  Audiometer,  Pilling  and  Son,  Phi] a. 

A.      INDIVIDUAL  OBSERVATION  AND  INSPECTION. 

It  is  claimed  about  5  per  cent  of  school  children  have  imperfect  hear- 
ing. Test  the  acuity  of  hearing  with  a  watch.  Outline  necessary  pre- 
cautions. Why  is  the  whisper  test  better?  How  may  a  "check"  be  de- 
vised? Why  should  the  pupil's  eyes  be  closed? 

Question  for  earaches. 

Give  a  simple  dictation  test  and  note  errors,  position  of  head,  etc. 

Inspect  for  types  of  ears.  The  ear  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
Bertillon  system  of  identifying  criminals. 

References: 

Bently,  I.  M.      Standard  Tests  in  Hearing.     Science,  N.  S.,  XIX:  959. 

Chrisman,  Oscar.  Sight  and  Hearing  in  Relation  to  Education.  Proc. 
N.  B.  A.,  1904,  939-946. 

Blake,  C.  J.  Importance  of  Hearing  Tests  in  the  Public  Schools.  Proc. 
N.  E.  A.,  1903,  1013-1019. 

McMillan,  D.  P.  Some  results  of  Hearing  Tests  of  Chicago  School 
Children.  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1901,  880-888. 

Porter,  W.  T.  The  Growth  of  St.  Louis  Children.  Trans.  Acad.  Sci., 
St.  Louis,  VI:  263. 

Whipple,  G.  Auditory  Ability,  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests. 
Warwisk  &  York,  Baltimore,  1910:166-180. 


Notes  on  School  Observation 
XVII.    SUMMARY  OF  PHYSICAL  CONDITION. 

School Observer 

Name  of  pupil '. Date  of  birth 

Family  and  personal  history 


25 


Date  of  examination.  . 

1911 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

Age  

1.      Height  

Norm  

2.      Weight  

Norm  

3.      Chest  girth  .... 

Inspiration  

Expiration  

4.      Lung    capacity.  . 

Norm  

5.      Head  girth  

6.      Cephalic  index.  . 

.  .  .  .  i 

7.      Asymmetries..  .  . 

8.      Posture  

9.      Teeth.  

Norm  

10.      Tonsils  

11  .      Adenoids  

12.      Nasal   obstruc- 
tions 

13.      Nutrition   

14.      Nervous      condi- 
tion 

15       Vision    R.  eye 

L.  eye    

16       Hearing,  R    ear. 

L    ear  

26  Bulletin  of  The  University  of  Texas 


SELECTED  BOOKS  FOR  REFERENCE. 

The  following  books  are  recommended  for  general  reference  work  in 
the  several  topics  treated  in  this  syllabus. 

Allen,  Wm.  H.  Civics  and  Health.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston,  1909.  XI-h 
411  pp.  $1.25. 

Barry,  W.  F.  The  Hygiene  of  the  Schoolroom.  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.. 
N.  Y.,  1903.  191  pp.  $1.50. 

Gulick,  Luther  H.,  and  Ayres,  Leonard  P.  Medical  Inspection  of 
Schools.  Charities  Pub.  Comm.,  N.  Y.,  1908.  X+276  pp.  $1.00. 

Hall,  G.  S.  Adolescence.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1905;  609,  790  pp. 
$7.00. 

Henderson,  C.  R.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Dependent,  Defective, 
and  Delinquent  Classes.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1906.  404  pp.  $1.50. 

Hoag,  E.  B.  The  Health  Index  of  Children.  Whitaker  &  Ray-Wiggin 
Co.,  San  Francisco,  1910.  188  pp.  80c. 

Kotelmann,  L.  School  Hygiene  (Eng.  Trans.).  Bardeen,  Syracuse. 
N.  Y.,  1898.  352  pp.  $1.50. 

MacKenzie,  W.  Leslie.  The  Medical  Inspection  of  School  Children. 
Glasgow,  1904.  476  pp. 

Rowe,  Stuart  H.  The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child.  Macmillan  Co., 
N.  Y.,  1906.  XII+211  pp.  90c. 

Shaw,  Edward  R.  School  Hygiene.  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1902.  252 
pp.  $1.00. 

Smith,  J.  W.  Defects  of  Vision  and  Hearing.  A.  Flanagan  Co.,  Chi- 
cago, 1904.  103  pp.  40c. 

Tyler,  John  Mason.  Growth  and  Education.  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  N. 
Y.,  1907.  XIV+294  pp.  $1.50. 

Suggestions  to  Teachers  and  School  Physicians  Regarding  Medical  In- 
spection. Mass.  Board  of  Education,  1907. 


PAMPHLET  BINDER 

Meno/actuHtt  6g 

5AYLORD  BROS. 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


YC  57723 


M523681 


